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Fellowship Paper
The Imperial Scrapbook Project:
By Daniella K. Garran Cape Cod Lighthouse Charter School
Massachusetts Charter Public School Association 2006
Introduction Chartered in 1994 and opening its doors in 1996, the Cape Cod Lighthouse Charter School (CCLCS) was among the first charter schools in Massachusetts. Currently, the school serves students in grades six through eight from 14 towns on Cape Cod. CCLCS strives to foster “intellectual development, academic achievement, project based learning, interdisciplinary studies, community partnerships, environmental studies, global awareness and an ethical community” (About the School, Mission 1994). The school’s enrollment has increased since its inception and reached its zenith of 204 students in the 2006-2007 academic year, boasting 68 students at each grade level with an average class size of 17. All students take full programs in language arts, social studies, math, and science. In addition, they take studio art, health, and physical education once a week, and they have the option to participate in music. Sixth grade students also take reading and general music, and most seventh and eighth graders take either French or Spanish. Special education support is provided to students who have Individualized Educational Plans or 504 plans (Annual Report, CCCLCS 2004-2005). Located between a Chinese restaurant and medical offices, CCLCS is housed in an underground strip mall. Students pride themselves on telling their peers who attend the district middle school, “CCLCS is not like other schools.” Drawing on Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences, Fred Newmann’s model of authentic assessment, and Ted Sizer’s focus on student exhibitions and teaching as mentoring, CCLCS emphasizes project-based learning. The practical application of these theories means that both learning and teaching are exciting, challenging, and most importantly, fun. Teachers value the opportunity to incorporate outside knowledge, interests, and experiences into their teaching, and students relish the engaging practices utilized in classes, seminars and extra-curricular activities. The projects assigned at CCLCS offer students the chance to show their strengths--be they artistic, verbal, dramatic or technological--while demonstrating content mastery, and the array of results for any given project is stunning! CCLCS’s interdisciplinary, multi-modal, project-based approach helps students prepare for and pass carefully-developed benchmarks for each subject at each grade level. Students must attain a minimum of 75% to 80% (depending on the benchmark) on a variety of benchmark tests or projects that measure content mastery and understanding. In a paper outlining the key aspects of the school, former School Director Patricia Anthony and Associate Director Paul Niles and Patricia Anthony describe the practice at CCLCS: Each discipline has developed student performance objectives, standards for those objectives, and benchmarks for attainment of the objectives. These discipline-specific objectives, standards, and benchmarks . . . speak to the faculty's desire to make certain that all students succeed academically. . . Because of the benchmarks, teachers are able to track every student's progress as they advance through the skills and knowledge base to be mastered within their grade. (2002, 8-9) Students showcase their knowledge in a variety of projects (research papers, analytical essays, models, skits, presentations, artwork, etc. ), demonstrating that they have attained important benchmarks and have achieved an authentic understanding of the subject matter. The Value of Project-Based Learning (PBL) As noted earlier, the theories of Sizer, Gardner, and Newmann were critical to the development of CCLCS and its mission. Newmann’s criteria for authentic assessment tasks were particularly influential (Barnatt, Joan, Founding Teacher and Professional Development Coordinator, conversation with author, CCLCS, 6 June 2006). In a paper entitled, “Five Standards of Authentic Instruction,” Fred Newmann and Gary Wehlage write, “We use the word authentic to distinguish between achievement that is significant and meaningful and that which is trivial and useless” (Newmann and Wehlage 1993, 17). At CCLCS we strive to engage students in significant and thoughtful learning, and we do this through project-based learning. In Successful School Restructuring: a Report to the Public and Educators Newmann and Wehlage cite several standards for authentic student performance including:
The CCLCS faculty believes that the most effective way to achieve these and other key goals is through the implementation of in-depth, content-based projects in every subject area. Though they can be time consuming, projects are critical to helping students develop curiosity, enthusiasm, independence, and knowledge. Simply put, projects are part of the very fabric of CCLCS. Seventh Grade Social Studies at CCLCS: an Overview of Content and Methodology As outlined in the Massachusetts Department of Education Curriculum Frameworks, seventh graders study the “Ancient and Classical Civilizations in the Mediterranean to the Fall of the Roman Empire: Ideas that Shaped History” (MA Framework 2003). According to the MA DOE Frameworks, “Seventh graders study the origins of human beings in Africa and the early civilizations that flourished in the Mediterranean area. They study the religions, governments, trades, philosophies, and art of these civilizations as well as the powerful ideas that arose in the ancient world and profoundly shaped the course of human history. These ideas include monotheism, democracy, the rule of law, individual worth, personal responsibility, the alphabetic principle for a writing system, and scientific reasoning.” (MA Framework 2003, 48). The seventh grade social studies curriculum, which I teach at CCLCS, is focused on ancient civilizations including Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. To analyze each culture, students study the rise and fall of civilizations, focusing on government, social structures, the economy, job specialization, writing and literature, the military, and the legacies these civilizations left behind. Ancient Rome is the culmination of a year-long study of the ancient world. While I utilize some traditional methods of instruction (class discussion, guided reading, writing assignments, note taking, and group activities), each major unit centers on a project, and key to each project is writing in the first person and analysis of primary sources, such as diaries, letters, government documents, and artifacts. I help students understand the value of primary sources and the difference between artifacts and interpretation of them. I emphasize writing in the first person because it forces students to put themselves in someone else’s shoes, consider the various factors that may have influenced that person’s decisions, imagine how this person might have been viewed by others, and consider how various points of view might have influenced the writing of history. Making such inferences and connections allows students to construct a “meaningful” history, rather than simply relying on others’ interpretations and recording of history. To develop the students’ ability to interpret primary sources and write convincingly in the first person, I build the curriculum incrementally. Over the course of the school year, seventh grade social studies project requirements become increasingly demanding and, in an effort to promote academic independence, somewhat less structured. Students begin the year by completing an illustrated history of Mesopotamia. This project is assigned with very strict guidelines, which are outlined in a grading rubric and project information packet/project guide. Though primary sources are used in class to highlight the achievements of this civilization, students are not expected to use them to complete this project; secondary sources suffice at this stage. While neither the content nor the nature of this project is particularly difficult, the work is designed to help students (and their parents) understand what will be expected on future projects. For their next project, students create two “authentic” Egyptian artifacts and an archaeologist’s journal chronicling the excavation of these artifacts. For example, a student might choose to make a “canopic jar” (after the decorated jars that stored mummy’s organs) and a page from the “Book of the Dead” (a book of spells buried with the deceased, helping one navigate the underworld), thereby creating two “primary” sources on which their “secondary” source (the archaeologist’s journal) will be based. Throughout their research for this project, students gather and interpret information, exploring both primary and secondary sources. After studying Egypt, we turn our attention to Greece. During this unit, students select a project topic from a list I provide--though students are always free to choose their own topics, pending my approval. In keeping with Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, students select the form their project will take, and they demonstrate their understanding in the manner in which they feel most comfortable and confident. For inspiration, I display past projects--videos, reports, models, songs, epic poems, etc. It is during this unit and the completion of this project that students have the most freedom. Many students choose to make models of the Parthenon, write epic poems, build models of triremes (Greek war ships), or write research papers. There are guidelines for each project genre and students have regular check-ins so I can assess their progress. Again, students use a combination of primary and secondary sources to research their chosen topics. After studying ancient Greece, we study ancient Rome, and typically, I devote six to eight weeks of my curriculum to this study. The first three weeks of the unit are spent helping students gain a thorough understanding of the foundation of Rome, including the monarchy and the republic. Other content includes daily life, art, architecture, technology, and legacies of ancient Rome. To help them develop an understanding of ancient Roman culture, students are assigned reading and guide questions from both primary and secondary sources. Students also engage in a cross-cultural comparison, so they can see the lasting impact and influence of previously studied civilizations on the development of ancient Rome. The unit on ancient Rome focuses largely on government and the shift from monarchy, to republic, to empire over the course of Rome’s history. One of the most critical aspects of the unit is comparing Rome’s government to the direct democracy of ancient Greece and the representative democracy of the United States. The other main focus of this unit is a close examination of the factors that led to the rise and fall of the Roman Empire, factors such as the economy, military strategies, social stratification, access to education, leisure activities, invasions, and the rise of Christianity. The final in-school project of the year is completed by the class as a whole. Fashioned in the style of Trajan’s Column (a 100 ft tall monument) and using a sonatube (a concrete form used to create structural support, though any large tube will work), each student illustrates at least one major event, person, or place studied over the course of the year. Their illustrations are then assembled in chronological order, demonstrating the overlap among the development of the ancient civilizations studied. These major projects are supplemented by smaller projects throughout the year, some of which are completed in class while working in small groups. They demonstrate student attainment of CCLCS benchmarks. The increasing difficulty of the projects assigned in seventh grade social studies at CCLCS is directly proportional to students’ academic and intellectual development over the course of the year. As students become more abstract thinkers, they are able to manipulate information more readily and think more creatively about content. By completing the aforementioned projects, students are not merely learning content; rather, they are developing skills and understanding, which help students complete their final independent project (and the focus of this paper), an Imperial Scrapbook. Implementing the Imperial Scrapbook Project (ISP) The Imperial Scrapbook project is the seminal piece of our study of ancient Rome. It requires seventh-grade CCLCS students to research a Roman emperor of their choice, write a “first hand” account of his imperial reign, design and compile a timeline and a map, and compile additional elements such as images, postcards, and other artifacts. The project provides students with an opportunity to practice high stakes writing, utilize multiple learning styles, and demonstrate their understanding of content in a variety of ways. Students must utilize skills and knowledge developed in other disciplines (research, writing, and drawing, for example), as well as those developed in class and necessary for historians (such as use of primary and secondary sources). The project utilizes a multi-modal approach to the study of imperial Rome. It allows students to form conclusions about government that they might not otherwise reach and helps them develop an understanding of the role that the historian plays in interpreting data and artifacts. Project Components There are several key elements of the Imperial Scrapbook Project. Core Elements are as follows:
To complete the above, each student conducts research on the emperor he or she chooses. The first part of the research is related to the timeline element of the project. Students establish a chronology for the life of the emperor and identify ten key events from the emperor’s lifetime, which are integrated into their journal. The remainder of their research is self-directed; in other words, students determine what they need to research for their journals and illustrations. As they research their emperors, students are encouraged to take the viewpoint of a historian rather than a student; that is, they are encouraged to view the emperor in the bigger picture, in the history of ancient Rome. Students pay particular attention to their selected emperor’s contributions and legacies, as well as personal failures. As part of their project research, students consider the emperor’s impact on Rome’s economy, military conquests or losses, international relations, patronage of the arts, changes in government, and so on. Once students have synthesized the relevant information and have developed an understanding of the emperor’s role within Rome’s history, they must then write a narrative in the first person, thus creating an authentic, “primary resource.” The emperor’s journal provides students with the opportunity to practice “high stakes” writing, writing on which students receive a significant grade. This experience is critical, especially given the significant emphasis placed on students’ written work in the MCAS long composition and the SAT. By the time students are assigned this project, they have had ample opportunities to practice writing from a variety of perspectives (reporters, archaeologists, etc. ) and in several different formats (for example, an in-class essays or an exit card, a brief student response to a question posed at the end of class, allowing the teacher to quickly assess whether the student understands the concepts presented in class). With this practice, students are ready for such “high stakes” writing. Additional Elements Many students are visual learners, and as a result, the following elements of the project are particularly appealing to them, providing students with an opportunity to showcase both their talents and their understanding. Moreover, researching the visual history of ancient Rome gives students a good sense of how archaeologists are able to construct a civilization’s history and learn from its art and artifacts. Finally, these elements also provide good opportunities for students to make cross-curricular connections, and they help students highlight certain aspects of ancient Roman history, as desired.
Planning and Preparation, Nuts and Bolts Because the project takes place at the end of the school year, students have already learned some basic information about the more notable emperors. I encourage them to do a bit of additional research on a few emperors who interest them before committing to the emperor for whom they will make a scrapbook. I limit students’ choice of emperors to those about whom I know they will be able to find a wealth of information. Some of the emperors I have suggested include Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Vespasian, Domitian, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Caracalla, Diocletian, Constantine, and Romulus Augustus. However, if a student is interested in an emperor not included on the list, he or she is welcome to study that individual, pending my approval. Typically, I spend about 30 to 45 minutes introducing the project on the day it is assigned. Students are given a comprehensive packet/project guide, which includes:
We go through the entire project packet as a class. This is when students run ideas by me and get a general sense of the project. I allow plenty of time for questions. The project guide is also posted on the school’s Web site, so if students misplace the packet, they have access to it from home at any time. Depending on the length of time students have to complete a project, they will have one or two project check-ins, generally scheduled one week or so after the initial introduction to the project, and again one or two weeks later. The check-in is perhaps the most critical part of this and every project, and typically check-ins are worth five points of each student’s final project grade. As noted above, included in their project guide packet is a form for each check-in (see Appendix B), which requires students to cite the sources they have used so far, to summarize their research to date, and to list any questions they (or their parents) have for me. In order to receive full credit for the check-in, students are also required to obtain a parent signature. This ensures that parents have seen the assignment and are aware of all due dates and project needs. Essentially, the check-in looks like this. Students come to class with the project check-in form, ideally completed and signed by a parent. I go around to each student and note if the forms are as they should be. While I am checking in with students individually, the rest of the class writes down their assignment for that night, and student volunteers pass back papers or handouts for the class. This is also the time when I respond to questions written on the form. I complete this same process at the next project check-in, and students submit all project check-in forms with the final project. Students assimilate to the process quickly, as I follow the same protocol for all of my projects, fall through spring. I have found that the check-in eliminates a great deal of procrastination on the part of my students and that parents are pleased to be notified of deadlines well in advance. Project check-ins help guarantee student success by promoting teacher-student (and parent) communication. As the due date approaches, I devote the first few minutes of each class to a question and answer opportunity for students. I also offer extra help before school and during tutorial periods. Further, I encourage students to submit outlines or drafts of their written work in advance of the due date, so I can provide feedback and ensure that they are on the right track. Many students submit their drafts via e-mail. Because the project is completed mostly outside of class, I provide very few materials (beyond the project guide). It is useful, however, if students have access to computers for both online research and word processing, as well as access to secondary sources that provide background material on Roman emperors. It is helpful to have file cards on hand for students to use as postcards as well as tin foil for the creation of coins; also useful are blank maps on which students can show the borders of the empire during their chosen emperor’s reign, historical atlases, markers, colored pencils and other art supplies. Though some students purchase actual scrapbooks or photo albums, this is not necessary; most students simply type their journal entries and include them (with the other required elements of the project) in a simple folder. After the projects are completed, students are given the opportunity to share them with their classmates. They are also displayed at the school’s annual open house held each June. Parents, friends, and families attend this event which showcases student work. Goals and Objectives of the Project The goals and objectives for students are:
The goals and objectives for teachers are:
Connection to the Massachusetts History and Social Science Curriculum Framework This project directly addresses the seventh grade learning strands and grade seven social studies learning standards 7.35 through 7.44, while reinforcing students’ mastery of previously covered content and skills. Additionally, it highlights reading, writing, researching, and editing skills developed in other content areas, and supports the use of technology as a research base. Further, the Imperial Scrapbook Project is directly related to the grade seven concepts and skills cited in the Massachusetts History and Social Science Curriculum Frameworks (see Appendix D). The Imperial Scrapbook project, if completed in full, covers each of the grade seven learning standards for the Massachusetts History and Social Science Curriculum Framework (see Appendix E). The project can also be adapted to any other social studies content and grade level so as to meet the different learning standards as well as concepts and skills. Being Flexible: Adapting, Modifying, and Troubleshooting As with any project or significant assignment, there are obstacles. The major obstacle in this case is time, as class time is always at a premium. Many schools are focused on Language Arts and Math MCAS preparation, which can take time away from other disciplines. This is why, once students have mastered the basics about the civilization being studied, I assign my projects to be completed outside of school. Typically, I do not assign additional work over the weekends for the duration of the project, so students have several extended opportunities to work on their projects. Also, there is no other homework assigned the week that the project is due. An obstacle to doing this project outside of class is the lack of organization that characterizes many middle school students; for this age group planning for long-term projects is extremely difficult. I have found the best way to handle this challenge is to post a calendar in my classroom that includes all relevant deadlines for the project, in addition to test dates and project due dates for other classes. As mentioned above, students also complete project check-ins throughout the duration of the project, so I have a good sense of how far along they are in their research, writing, and artifact creation. Students have reported anecdotally that these check-ins help them immensely--both to plan the project and to manage their time while carrying it out. Additionally, because all CCLCS teachers post their homework assignments and projects online, at www.yourhomework.com, students and parents can check due dates at their convenience. Finally, each Monday students are sent home with “Notes to Home,” which update families about ongoing projects, upcoming deadlines, and important assignments and tests. This information is also posted on the school’s Web site. Communicating with parents is critical to student success on this and every project. Even with the challenges, this project offers considerable flexibility. Length and content can be easily modified for special needs students, for example, or English language learners. I have had great success collaborating with our special educators to help accommodate students with a variety of learning differences. In 2006, for example, I had a number of special education students with tremendous artistic talents. We worked to modify the amount of written work they were required to produce, while allowing them to do additional artwork to show their understanding of the material. These students performed beautifully; they were able to successfully and confidently demonstrate their understanding in a way that catered to their strengths. Additionally, they earned high grades on their projects based on the modifications made to meet their needs. I’ll show their work as examples of excellent projects. The project is adaptable. It can easily be modified to suit a variety of social studies curricula (for example, creating a pharaoh’s scrapbook, a scrapbook from the American Revolution, a Civil War soldier’s scrapbook, a Greek philosopher’s scrapbook, etc. ). Further, the same format could be used in language arts classes to document a character’s development and journey throughout a novel or play. It would be an especially effective format for historical fiction or biographies. Science students engaged in any kind of fieldwork or observations or math students doing a study of famous mathematicians could use a similar format as well. Feedback and Assessment As noted earlier, students are presented with the grading rubric on the day that the project is assigned (see Appendix B). This allows students to know exactly what is expected of them and how they will be assessed prior to beginning the project. In addition to students’ performance on this project, I assess their understanding of ancient Rome based on their participation in class activities and discussions, a comprehensive research essay about the fall of the Roman empire, and a final test on the Rome unit. The best indicators of the project’s success and students’ understanding are:
In addition, students’ self-assessments point to the success of the project. At the end of each term and at the end of the year, students complete a project overview self-assessment in which they analyze and critique their performance on projects over the course of the year. These results have provided valuable anecdotal evidence that the Imperial Scrapbook Project helped students develop an authentic understanding of the content, which they can then apply to other situations. For example, students who researched emperors with poor leadership skills (Caligula or Nero, for example) demonstrated an understanding of why modern nations with unskilled leaders or motives other than the best interest of their nation often lead to the downfall of those nations. Conversely, students who researched honorable and skilled emperors (such as Trajan and Hadrian), showed that they recognized the importance of having such a leader in today’s world. Students reported (anecdotally and in written evaluations of the project, June 2006) that this project was a positive experience. One student cited that simply reading from secondary sources is boring and can be confusing. She also stated that it is more difficult to recall and analyze information that she has simply read. Manipulating the information in a creative way helped her to gain a deeper understanding of the material. She also said she enjoyed being given the opportunity to choose which emperor she could research. Another student cited that she enjoyed this project because she learned personal information about a Roman emperor rather than simply learning about his achievements from a text. Several students concurred that because the project pushed them to use their imaginations, they learned more than if they had simply done reading and writing about the content. One student reported that she learned a great deal by having to imagine that she was Constantine because she was forced to consider what factors influenced his decisions and actions. All in all, students concurred that the creativity and imagination required for this project facilitated and expanded their understanding of the Roman Empire. Conclusions and Reflections First implemented in the spring of 2006, this project is a culmination of several years’ worth of curriculum development and implementation; it includes elements of other projects completed with previous classes. My first project check-in, for example, was developed in the spring of 2004 when I implemented the Greece project. This system worked so well that I now employ it in all my projects. The journal element came as a result of students maintaining journals in several sixth grade projects; I found it a format with which students are comfortable, one that encourages them to think both creatively and critically. Like many teachers, I developed this project mainly because what I had been doing was not working. Typically, I had assigned a research paper to conclude the unit on Rome. Over time, I came to realize that because our students are used to demonstrating their knowledge through a variety of projects, the research paper did not pose enough of a challenge to them. With the Imperial Scrapbook Project in place, the Rome unit is now much more in line with the rest of my projects and with the mission of the school. Also, the project is much more accessible for students with learning differences for whom simply writing an essay is an insurmountable challenge. Providing students with a range of options through which to present their knowledge and understanding of a given topic is very much in keeping with CCLCS philosophy and practice. This and the other projects I have developed during my tenure at CCLCS are truly labors of love. I never imagined that I would find such a perfect outlet for my interest in both history and art history and my love of teaching. Working in a project-based school that allows teachers flexibility and freedom to augment the curriculum with their own talents and interests has allowed me to further my knowledge and grow as a teacher. Students at CCLCS engage in authentic learning and experiences that prepare them to become knowledgeable, informed members of the global community. I am proud to have a hand in educating this extraordinary group of future leaders.
About the Author Daniella K. Garran grew up in Baltimore, Maryland. She received her B.A. from Connecticut College in 1994 with majors in History and Art History. She then attended Tufts University where she earned her M.A. in Education and her Certificate in Museum Studies. The main focus of her graduate research was Holocaust education. Ms. Garran spends her summers teaching sailing and working with the teen leadership program at the Cape Cod Sea Camps where she has spent almost every summer since she was 11 years old. There, she met and eventually married her husband, Jeff. Ms. Garran has been a seventh grade social studies teacher at the Cape Cod Lighthouse Charter School since 2003. She also serves as the school’s yearbook advisor and as one of the student government advisors.
Appendix A: ROMAN EMPEROR RESEARCH PROJECT PLANNING SHEET AND PROJECT CHECK-IN FORM
QUESTIONS ABOUT THIS PROJECT FROM STUDENTS: ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ QUESTIONS ABOUT THIS PROJECT FROM PARENTS: ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Parent Signature ______________________________Date ____________________________
Appendix B: GRADING RUBRIC
Appendix C: HELPFUL WEB SITES
The following Web sites have proven to be helpful and reliable sources for student research about the Roman emperors. Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families (Salve Regina University) PBS’ The Roman Empire Illustrated History of the Roman Empire BBC Schools: The Romans Wikipedia Tacitus’ Annals Aelius Spartianus’ Life of Hadrian Seutonius’ The Lives of the Caesars, the Deified Julius Seutonius’ The Lives of the Caesars, Tiberius Seutonius’ The Lives of the Caesars, Caius Caligula Seutonius’ The Lives of the Caesars, Nero Seutonius’ Life of Claudius Seutonius’ The Lives of the Caesars, Domitianus Seutonius’ The Lives of the Caesars, The Deified Augustus Cape Cod Lighthouse Charter School; Daniella Garran’s Resources
Appendix D: FULFILLMENT OF GRADE 7 CONCEPTS AND SKILLS IN (Note: Left column material is taken from the Massachusetts History and Social Science Curriculum Frameworks, 2003, 45)
Appendix E: FULFILLMENT OF GRADE 7 LEARNING STANDARDS IN (Note: Left column material is taken from the Massachusetts History and Social Science Curriculum Frameworks, 2003, 49-50)
References About Cape Cod Lighthouse Charter School, Mission (About CCLCS, Mission). 1994. Retrieved 6 June 2006 from the Cape Cod Lighthouse Charter School Web site: www.lighthouse.chtr.k12.ma.us/abt/mission.php. Annual Report. 2005. Cape Cod Lighthouse Charter School, 2004 - 2005. Anthony, Patricia J. and Paul M. Niles. 2002. Leading the Way: The Cape Cod Lighthouse Charter School Middle School Model, Humanistic, Achievement-Oriented Education for the Middle School-aged Child. Retrieved 17 July 2006 from the Massachusetts Charter Public School Association Web site: http://www.masscharterschools.org/wholeschool/docs/120/CCLCS2.html. Massachusetts Department of Education. 2003. Massachusetts History and Social Science Curriculum Framework (MA Framework). Retrieved 5 June 2006 from the Massachusetts Department of Education Web site: www.doe.mass.edu/frameworks/current.html Newmann, Fred M. and Gary G. Wehlage. 1993. Authentic Learning. Educational Leadership, vol 50 (April) vol. 50, no 7: 8-12. Retrieved 17 July 2006 from the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) Web site: http://pdonline.ascd.org/pd_online/diffinstr/el199304_newmann.html Newmann, Fred M. and Gary G. Wehlage. 1995. Successful School Restructuring: a Report to the Public and Educators by the Center on Organization and Restructuring of Schools. Washington, DC: American Federation of Teachers. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED387925). Retrieved 24 July 2006 from the ERIC Web site:http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal
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